Interactive governance of whale ecosystem services: governability assessment of three case studies in the Arctic

The social-ecological change in the Arctic is accelerated by the multifaceted effects of climate change and globalization.Among other things, this means changing human-ecosystem dynamics through altered availability, co-production, and governance ofecosystem services (ES). A group of species illustrative of this change are whales, migratory species that have played an important partin the culture and subsistence of Arctic communities for millennia. This study explores the changing human-nature interactions andwhale ES governance by combining ES and interactive governance theories. A multi-method approach is applied to assess qualitativelythe qualitative governability of whale ES in three Arctic coastal locations: Húsavík in Iceland, Andenes in Norway, and Disko Bay inGreenland. Based on a literature review, stakeholder mapping, observations, and analysis of 54 semi-structured stakeholder interviews,the study finds that whale ES governance involves multiple actors with differing preferences and values and that much of it happensoutside of formal institutions, necessitating inclusive approaches to improve it. The study reveals some whale ES governance deficienciesand potentials, such as a mismatch between governance scales and a need for more formal governance practices based on scientificresearch and stakeholder inputs. Governance frameworks were present for provisioning whale ES related to whaling, but they werelacking for non-consumptive whale ES, such as whale watching. Addressing these issues can help to direct marine resource managementtoward sustainability by making it more inclusive, adaptive, and reflective of stakeholder needs and values. This goal could be advancedby applying the governance principles that view humans as an integral part of social-ecological systems, e.g., ecosystem stewardshipand ecosystem-based management.